NEWS: INTEL BUILDS A CHIP WITH 48 CORES

Intel has designed a futuristic chip which could Reshape how computers are built and how consumers Interact with their PCs and personal devices.

Researchers from Intel Labs demonstrated recently an experimental, 48-core Intel processor, or "single-chip cloud computer," that rethinks many of the approaches used in today's designs for laptops, PCs and servers. This futuristic chip boasts about 10 to 20 times the processing engines inside today's most popular Intel® Core™-branded processors.

This chip contains the most Intel Architecture (IA) computing engines integrated on a silicon CPU chip – 48 cores -- while consuming only as much electricity as two standard household light bulbs.

More:

http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/20091202comp_sm.htm

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PC - CASE & POWER SUPPLY

POWER SUPPLY

Before purchasing a power supply, it's a good idea to draw up a general power budget for a PC. You can do this by adding up the total energy draw from each of your system's components. CPUs typically fall in a range of 35 to 130 watts, the motherboard from 25-50 watts sans RAM, drives usually fall between 15-20 Watts apiece, and graphics cards may require anywhere from 30 to 200 watts depending on the specific make and model in use. Add 30 percent to this total when you're finished just to be on the safe side. If you want to make room for future components or upgrades, bump this fudge factor even higher, but don't forget that power supplies tend to be somewhat less efficient as loads increase.

A computer's power supply unit

Heavy-duty power supplies get expensive pretty quickly, and in view of quad core CPUs that will impose widely different power draws depending on their energy saving regimes (a la SpeedStep and Cool'n'Quiet) switching individual cores on and off, I only recommend extreme models when they are really necessary.

The big impetus for power supply makers going forward should not be to build ever-bigger and -beefier units, but rather to keep improving efficiency ratings.

To be sure, power supplies rated at 600 watts and up have legitimate uses, but the total population of users who need that much power is miniscule comparison to the legions of average users. With a little knowledge and some considered calculations, savvy buyers can save money on both power supply purchase and operating costs.

CASE

Concerning cases, it's advisable to chose a wide case in order to our system can "breathe". This extra space also will let you upgrade your system with new cards or drives, such as a new Hard Drive, a TV card etc.

t's also a good idea to buy a case with several fans. We will have always the processor fan and the fan of the power supply. However I think that is necessary at least one or two more fans to extract better the heat generated inside. Besides, the case should have little holes which let the hot air go out of the case.

Finally, I find quite useful to have good access to USB ports. For example, I would choose a case with at least two USB ports in the front side.

More:

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/pc-power-supplies,1664.html

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LHC HAS BECOME THE WORLD'S HIGHEST-ENERGY PARTICLE ACCELERATOR

The LHC pushed this weekend the energy of its particle beams beyond one trillion electron volts, making it the world's highest-energy particle accelerator.

The previous record was held by the Tevatron particle accelerator in Chicago.

Until now the LHC had been operating at a relatively low energy of 450 billion electron volts. On Sunday, engineers increased the energy of this "pilot beam", reaching 1.18 trillion electron volts at 2344 GMT. The previous record of 0.98 trillion electron volts has been held by the Tevatron accelerator since 2001. The LHC is eventually expected to operate at some seven trillion electron volts.

The official shedule is to increase progressively the energy of the beams and, in few days time, to start with the first collisions. Abundant collisions will be generated in the four big detectors. This collisions will allow engineers and physicists to calibrate these detectors. When the LHC is fully operational, 600 million of collisions  of protons per second will be generated.

Unless anything unexpected happens, the LHC will reach next year a energy of 3,5 TeV per beam, and physicists think that,then, they will be able to get the first scientific data.


More:


http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/bigbang/ 

http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7543089.stm

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PC - OPTICAL STORAGE (DVD/CD BURNERS)

READ AND WRITE SPEED

There are a few facts to consider before buying a new optical drive: read and write speed, the interface or labeling technologies. Read speeds for DVDs and CDs really haven’t changed for years due to physical limits imposed by high spindle speeds. Write speeds have kept climbing, though, reaching 24x with the latest generation. This sounds impressive, but the real-life impact on disc write times is actually rather small. All modern DVD burners write data in CAV mode at constant angular velocity, which means that the disc spins at a constant RPM. As a result, the write bandwidth starts at rather slow bit rates and reaches its maximum when writing to the disc’s outer tracks. This is where 24x speed has its greatest impact. The write speed issue was even more significant in the case of double-layer discs, where the recording time is much longer than with single-layer discs.

A brand new 24x DVD burner doesn’t cost more than $40 and will probably be closer to $30. For DVD base speed, or "1x speed", is 1.385 MB/s, equal to 1.32 MiB/s, approximately 9 times faster than CD's base speed. For Blu-ray drive base speed is 6.74 MB/s, equal to 6.43 MB/s. In theory, there are significant advantages, such as much decreased recording times, new disc labeling technologies, slightly decreased power consumption, and SATA (rather than PATA) interfaces. However, the differences in real life require consideration.

It’s certainly possible to record single layer discs at 24x. Unfortunately, true 24x media is difficult to get; hence, we had to use 16x, hand-selected, high-quality recordable media from Verbatim (Taiyo Yuden) to run our tests at that speed. It worked well, but I wouldn’t put my life on its long-term durability.

INTERFACE

Other advances can be found on the interface side. More and more optical drives are now based on the convenient Serial ATA standard rather than UltraATA, which requires a jumper setting to put the drive into master or slave mode. SATA is faster but also much more common on modern motherboards.

An optical drive Drive (without case)

DISC LABELING TECHNOLOGIES

Lastly, many newer drives support disc labeling technologies, such as Labelflash or LightScribe. Unfortunately, these two aren’t compatible and require different media if you want to label them using the drive’s laser. Both technologies require compatible media, which you can turn over to have your DVD recording software burn images into the label side. This makes sense for important or valuable discs. But the technologies aren’t compatible, which means that you have to settle on one of them and purchase compatible media. Note that these discs typically aren’t available for top recording speeds. 

CONCLUSIONS

DVD/CD burners are really cheap today, so I wouldn't spend much time to decide which drive to buy. I strongly recommend LG DVD/CD burners because of its reliability. For example, two models I would buy may be GH22NS (NO Lightscribe) or GH22LS30 (Lightscribe). If you will copy often CDs from  one  DVD/CD to another one (copy "on the fly"), I also recommend to buy two optical drives so as not to have to save a previous DVD/CD image in the Hard Disk.

MORE

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/DVD-Burner,2447.html

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/cheap-dvd-burners-worth-trouble,1578.html

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PC - HARD DISK DRIVE (HDD)

INTRODUCTION

The Hard Disk Drive (HDD) isn't an essential element for the performance of the computer but, obviously, it makes our life easier. In fact, the Hard Disk, unlike RAM memory, is a peripheral which let us store huge amounts of data although our system is switched off. On the other hand, RAM memory is really faster than a Hard drive, so it's the memory used by software to store the data it needs. In short, the hard drive is a permanent, incredibly huge and slow memory while RAM memory is volatile, really fast and not necessarily a big memory.

As we have said, a hard drive is used to store huge amounts of data, so capacity will be the most important feature we will have to consider, but it isn't the only one. It's worth also taking into account performance, power consumption and its interface.

CAPACITY

Capacity has increased really fast in the last few years. Four years ago we spoke about HDD of 250GB and, today, the capacity of a HDD reaches 1 TB (one terabyte) without any difficulty. Although nowadays the price-capacity relation advises us to buy the HDD with the more capacity we find, it's always advisable to consider how much capacity we will need in order to save some money. Money that we could invest in a better processor or in more RAM. For example, a HDD of 500GB could cost about  40€ (60 US $) while a HDD of 1,5TB could cost about 90€ (135 US $). These 50 €  of difference would let us buy 2 modules of DDR3 1GB 1333MHZ RAM.

Nevertheless, it will be worth buying a 1,5TB HDD if you download huge amounts of data everyday or if you have a digital camera o a video camera. Then, capacity is never left. In a year, most people typically add at least a few gigabytes of digital pictures, or even more data if video is stored on the drive. Add to that music, new applications, and so on. Unless you don’t touch digital media at all, you might need an additional 50-100 GB capacity per year, and enthusiasts and professionals may easily require far more. Hard drives are very affordable: terabyte drives will soon be at $80. So if you need more storage anyway, go for it.

Interior of a Hard Disk with one platter and the reader head

 

PERFORMANCE

As we have said before, capacity has quadrupled in the last three-four years. Concerning performance, it has doubled. It's safe to say that each and every hard drive selling today is far superior to older-generation drives, as improving recording technologies keep pushing forward capacities and performance. But no individual feature—even Native Command Queuing or a larger cache—can make as much of a difference as simply stepping up from one drive generation to the next. In fact, the only reason why new hard drives aren’t getting faster to an even greater degree is an increased emphasis on power consumption and drive efficiency.

Therefore, when it comes time to buy a new hard drive, make sure the one you pick is a latest-generation model.

INTERFACE

Besides capacity and performance, other  improvements that make the new HDD superior to the older ones are the interface transition from parallel ATA to Serial ATA 150MB/s (and then 300 MB/s). If you decide to buy a SATA or SATA II 300 MB/s, for example, make sure that your motherboard supports this transmission bandwith so as not to waste your money.

Elements of a Hard Drive

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

I think it's worth having at least 2 HDD in my system because of security reasons for our system and for our data integrity. For example, I have software in one HDD with the OS, and data in the other one. If a virus infects my software HDD (the Hard disk where the OS is) and I eventually have to format it, I won't lose my data. Furthermore, if the two HDD are exactly the same, you can benefit from RAID  options.

Two hard disk are also interesting if you like working with two operating systems. For example Linux for working or professional issues and Windows for leisure. Then, you can set up an OS in each drive and chose the OS in the boot menu when you switch on your computer.

 Internal elements of a Hard Drive

SUMMARIZING

The following list shows some parameters of a Hard Drive. In my opinion, the key features to consider when buying a Hard drive are in bold:

Capacity:     From 250 GB to 1,5TB

Cache:         16 or 32 MB

Interface:   SATA/300

Warranty

Form Facto

Spindle Speed

Platters

Power consumption


CONCLUSIONS

Capacity is the most important feature but, in order to save money, I would buy the capacity I think I would need. I also would consider the possibility of buying two Hard Drive because of security reasons. Make sure also that the HDD you pick is a latest-generation model. Finally, brands like samsung, seagate, Western Digital or Hitachi would lead to a similar performance,so  brand isn't really important.

More:

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/samsung-ecogreen-hdd,2317.html

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/2tb-hdd-caviar,2261.html

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/Seagate-Barracuda-1.5-TB,2032.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive

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LHC WORKS AGAIN!!

Engineers first circulated a beam around the LHC on 10 September 2008 but , few days later, the machine was heavily damaged when an electrical fault caused a tonne of liquid helium to leak into the tunnel just nine days after it was first launched. During 14 months of repairs dozens of giant superconducting magnets that accelerate particles at the speed of light had to be replaced. This extra year also had allowed researchers to upgrade instrumentation and computer software.

Progress on restarting the machine went more quickly than expected on Friday. It was not anticipated that engineers would try to circulate a proton beam until 6am on Saturday at the earliest. However, two stable proton beams had already been circulated in opposite directions around the machine by midnight (GMT) on Friday. Operations team members spent Saturday injecting protons into the LHC's 27km-long "ring", attempting to improve the lifetime of the beams.

 

Tunnel of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire), known as CERN) with all the Magnets and Instuments. The shown part of the tunnel is located under the LHC P8, near the LHCb ( Author: Julian Herzog, Wikipedia Commons)

Engineers had discussed the possibility of attempting to increase the collider's energy to a record-breaking level of 1.2 trillion electron volts this weekend. Only the Tevatron particle accelerator in Chicago has so far approached this energy, operating at just under one trillion electron volts. Nevertheless, this plan now looks unlikely. Instead, engineers will probably concentrate on preparing the machine for its first low-energy collisions, scheduled to happen in the next 10-15 days.

Housed in a 27km-long circular tunnel under the Franco-Swiss border and operated by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), the LHC  is the world's largest machine and will create similar conditions to those which were present moments after the Big Bang. During the experiment, scientists will search for signs of the Higgs boson, a sub-atomic particle that is crucial to our current understanding of physics. Although it is predicted to exist, scientists have never found it.

More:

http://technologytodream.blogspot.com/search/label/Physics%20-%20LHC

http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7543089.stm

Read more »

PC - Graphics Card

INTRODUCTION

Today there is a lot of Graphics card models so, sometimes, it isn't easy to chose the card which suits the most to our requirements. There are some important features of a Graphics card, such as the quantity and bandwith of the graphics RAM or the width of the bus that will help us to decide which card we need. But I would like to say that graphics card is a really important element of your system if you are agamer. If you don't play games usually or if the games you play aren't really demanding, then the most cards are more expensive than what you really need and almost any mainstream graphics card will be suitable for your needs.

ATI RADEON X850XT AGP

THE MAIN FEATURE: QUANTITY AND BANDWITH OF GRAPHICS RAM

The biggest misconception out there is that more graphics RAM will increase gaming performance. But that isn't always true. While the bandwidth of the graphics RAM might have a direct effect on gaming performance, the quantity of RAM doesn't have a direct impact on how fast a graphics card performs.

The bandwidth of graphics card RAM is affected by two main factors: the clock rate and the interface width. Clock rate is measured in MHz, just like a CPU. The width of an interface is measured in bits, such as 128-bits wide. It gets a little complicated because we're talking about two variables here: clock rates and bandwidth. For example, 200 MHz, 64-bit memory should offer approximately the same bandwidth as 100 MHz, 128-bit memory. There are other factors, such as memory latency. Technology also plays a role, as GDDR5  RAM offers twice the throughput of DDR through GDDR4 at a given clock speed (the effective memory clock rate in modern cards is generally between 400 MHz and 3.8 GHz). But, for the most part, all you have to remember is that more bandwidth should have a direct impact on your gaming performance.

As we've said, the quantity of RAM that the graphics card employs doesn't have a direct impact on game performance, but it can have an indirect impact. Graphics card RAM will only negatively affect performance if there isn't enough to handle what a specific game title requires. A graphics card with 2GB (2,048 MB) should perform exactly the same as a graphics card with 512MB as long as the game's graphics memory requirements are below 512MB. If the game's settings and resolution require more than 512MB of graphics card RAM, the 512MB card will demonstrate a performance penalty compared to the 2GB card. Currently, RAM capacity of most modern video cards ranges from 128 MB to 4 GB.

NVIDIA GeForce 7900 GS PCI Express 16x

ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Every graphics card has a Graphics processing Unit (GPU). A GPU is a dedicated processor optimized for accelerating graphics. The processor is designed specifically to perform floating-point calculations, which are fundamental to 3D graphics rendering. The main attributes of the GPU are the core clock frequency, which typically ranges from 250 MHz to 4 GHz and the number of pipelines (vertex and fragment shaders), which translate a 3D image characterized by vertices and lines into a 2D image formed by pixels.

Nowadays the more extended technology is PCI-Express, which has replaced previous technologies such PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect), released in 1993, and AGP (Advanced Graphics Port), relesead in 1997. PCI is a 32-bit bus clocked 33 MHz whereas AGP is a 32-bit bus clocked at 66 MHz. A key difference between PCIe and earlier buses is a topology based on point-to-point serial links, rather than a shared parallel bus architecture.

Bus	Width (bits)	Clock rate (MHz)	Bandwidth (MB/s)
PCI	32 - 64	33 - 100	132 - 800
AGP 1x	32	66	264
AGP 8x	32	66	2000
PCIe x1	1	2500 / 5000	250 / 500
PCIe x4	1 × 4	2500 / 5000	1000 / 2000
PCIe x8	1 × 8	2500 / 5000	2000 / 4000
PCIe x16	1 × 16	2500 / 5000	4000 / 8000
PCIe x16 2.0	1 × 16	5000 / 10000	8000 / 16000

A graphics card can also consists on multiple video cards, such as two Radeon cards in CrossFire mode or two GeForce cards in SLI. This sort of graphics card typically require a motherboard that supports CrossFire or SLI and a chassis with more space to install multiple graphics cards. They also require a beefier power supply compared to what a single card needs, and will almost certainly produce more heat than a single card. Keep these factors in mind when making your purchasing decision, although this kind of graphics cards is only worth if you are a gamer.

CONNECTIVITY

Digital Visual Interface (DVI): Digital-based standard designed for displays such as flat-panel displays (LCDs, plasma screens, wide high-definition television displays) and video projectors. It avoids image distortion and electrical noise, corresponding each pixel from the computer to a display pixel, using its native resolution.

Video In Video Out (VIVO) for S-Video, Composite video and Component video: Included to allow the connection with televisions, DVD players, video recorders and video game consoles.

High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI): An advanced digital audio/video interconnect released in 2003 and is commonly used to connect game consoles and DVD players to a display.

Power demand

As the processing power of video cards has increased, so has their demand for electrical power. Present fast video cards tend to consume a great deal of power. While CPU and power supply makers have recently moved toward higher efficiency, power demands of GPUs have continued to rise, so the video card may be the biggest electricity user in a computer. You must have take power consumption into account in order to buy a suitable power supply.

BRAND

Don’t worry too much about which brand you choose, because all of the cards out there are close to Nvidia’s and ATI’s reference designs. Just pay attention to price, warranty, and the manufacturer’s reputation for honoring the warranty if something goes wrong.

Read more...

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/radeon-hd-5970,2474.html

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/best-graphics-card,2464.html

http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/graphics-ram-4870,2428.html

Read more »

PC - Motherboard (II)

Choosing The Right Chipset


The gateway between a processor and other parts of the computer is a set of interface controllers generically called the chipset. Traditional chipsets include a Northbridge, with a memory controller and either a PCI Express or an AGP interface for graphics, and a Southbridge, containing the standard PCI controller and various peripheral/communications buses for networking, audio and other components.

Example of an intel chipset. 440BX Chipset was very popular in motherboards for iPentium II

Though single-component chipsets have been around for many years, AMD's CPU-integrated Athlon 64 memory controllers removed one task from the Northbridge, making it easier for companies to integrate Northbridge and Southbridge components into one part.


The Northbridge

Traditional Northbridge designs include a memory controller linked directly to the CPU through the Front Side Bus. Early chipsets used a common CPU and memory bus frequency, so that the entire pathway was often called the Front Side Bus. Later chipsets allowed separate CPU and memory bus frequencies, limiting the acronym "FSB" to the pathway between CPU and Northbridge. AMD later removed the memory bus entirely from the chipset in its Athlon 64, with separate Northbridge and RAM pathways on the CPU replacing the Front Side Bus.

What remains common to all Northbridge designs is an AGP or PCI Express controller and a Southbridge interface (internal on single-component chipsets). Some Northbridge designs also incorporate a graphics processor, using either AGP or PCI Express interfaces internally.

Nvidia chipsets normally offer higher performance than chipsets of SiS or Via

Intel Quad Data Rate Northbridge Technology

Intel's quad-pumped quad data rate bus transfers data four times per clock cycle, so that 100, 133, 200 and 266 MHz clock rates provide effective 400, 533, 800 and 1066 MHz data rates. Because CPU Front Side Bus data rates are often twice as high as those of DRAM data rates, the performance solution has been to double the memory bus width from 64 to 128 bits by placing two modules on parallel pathways, which involves a technology called dual channel mode.

As an example, two DDR400 (PC3200) memory modules in dual-channel mode have the same bandwidth as Intel's FSB800 CPU bus, and both operate at an actual clock rate of 200 MHz. The same can be said of matching two DDR2-533 modules in dual-channel mode to Intel's FSB1066 Front Side Bus.

We recommend choosing a dual-channel supporting chipset if you want to opt for such a solution. Current PCI Express Northbridge technology supports DDR2-SDRAM in dual-channel mode.

This is a scheme of a Via chipset for AMD Athlon 64 where we can see most of the features supported by current motherboards

HyperTransport Interconnect Technologies (S754, S939, AM2)


With the memory bus removed from the Northbridge, AMD chipsets are able to mix-and-match older and newer technologies far more easily. AGP chipsets originally destined for use with Socket 754 have also been made available for Socket 939 buyers, PCI Express chipsets designed for Socket 939 have been used in Socket 754 motherboards, and AM2 motherboards using the previous Socket 939 generation of chipsets are available.


The Southbridge


The Southbridge contains most peripheral, multimedia, and communications busses, including the PCI controller (Peripheral Components Interconnect), ATA controller (for hard drives and optical drives), USB controller (Universal Serial Bus for external devices), network controller interface, audio controller interface, and often even a modem interface. Most chipsets from any given time period offer similar performance, but reviews can inform the buyer of potential inadequacies, such as which recent Southbridge designs had the worst Serial ATA performance, and which had sub-par USB performance.

Another feature of current motherboards is RAID mode for Serial ATA controllers, which allows the user to run up to four drives in a secure or high-performance array.

Gigabit networking is now mature, and most chipsets include dedicated links to a Gigabit PHY (physical chip, which takes care of the physical connection). High-end chipsets typically feature two links for two gigabit connections

Read more »

PC - Motherboard (I)

The support for a desired CPU is key to choose the motherboard. But a motherboard is far more than simply the device a CPU plugs into. What we must avoid buying a motherboard is an inappropriate component selection that may limit the performance of a high-priced system, making the added expense a waste of money. That is to say, we have to avoid bottlenecks.

There are three basic steps in order to choose our future motherboard:

A) Choosing parts that fit and work well together. For that we have to consider: motherboard size, socket type and chipset features.

B) Getting the best performance. Memory configuration and graphics support is what we have to consider concerning performance

c) Finally, ultimate functionality: Onboard devices and/or additional card slots have to be always considered.

The following picture shows some of this elements:

This is a Socket 775 motherboard from Foxconn (image obtained from www.tomshardware.com)

Choosing The Right Processor Socket

Current possibilities for sockets are especially:

LGA 1366
Intel Core i7. Integrated memory controller, DDR3 support and three memory channels

LGA 775
Intel Core 2 Quad&Duo, Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron. DDR2 support and two memory channels (dual channel)

Socket AM2
AMD Phenom, Athlon 64 & 64 X2 & 64 FX, Sempron. Integrated memory controller, DDR2 support and two memory channels (dual channel)

Socket 939
AMD Athlon 64 & 64 X2 & 64 FX. Integrated memory controller, DDR support and two memory channels (dual channel)


Memory

Memory type and configuration limits are normally thought to be those of the memory controller, but motherboard's slot configuration can further limit choices. For example, several smaller motherboards provide only two memory slots, both wired to a single memory channel, making a dual-channel capable memory controller pointless. Certainly, it's best to have at least four DIMM slots.

In the following posts I will keep explaining more about points A), B) and c)

Read more »

PC - RAM Memory (III)

SUMMARIZING

After reading the main features and parameters of RAM memory I have explained in the previous two posts, you are able to decide which RAM configuration you need for your personal computer.

But to summarize, here are my final recommendations for RAM memory purchases, which will remain valid even for the next generation platforms:

• I recommend to buy Kingston RAM memory modules.
  

• 2 modules of 1 GB or 2 modules of 2 GB of DDR2-800 or DDR2-1066 memory. It's not worth spending more money on DDR3 memory yet.
  

• Always get as few memory modules as possible, but equip all memory channels of a system to get maximum performance. The ideal configuration consists of two DIMMs today, and three DIMMs with Intel’s upcoming Core i7 systems.
  

• Look for quick timings, latencies for example (smaller numbers are better), but it's not worth spending substantial money on slightly faster modules.
  

• Spend additional budget on a faster processor, a faster graphics card or a faster drive instead of fast memory, unless you need overclocking memory

Read more »

PC - Memory DDR2 or DDR3?

What kind of memory: DDR2 or DDR3?


DDR3 advantages

One major factor favoring the purchase of DDR3 memory is that Intel is slowly moving all of its chipsets in that direction. Motherboard manufacturers expect big spenders to be the earliest adopters of new technology, so the majority of ultra-expensive motherboards will likely support only this latest memory standard while it gradually works its way into lower-cost markets.

DDR3 RAM memory module

While most PC builders won't "need" anything faster than mid-priced DDR2 for a while, DDR3 holds two key benefits over the technology it replaces: First, its maximum chip density has been extended to 8 Gb, allowing a 16-chip module to support a maximum 16 GB capacity. Second, its default voltage has been reduced to 1.50 volts from DDR2's 1.80 volts, resulting in a 30% power consumption decrease per clock speed.

However, the latest technology always comes at a significant penalty in value and DDR2 is more than sufficient for most systems, so why do we move to DDR3? Intel is likely preparing the desktop market for something big, specifically a move of the memory controller from the chipset to the CPU itself with its Intel i7 new processor. As with AMD's current products, this design eliminates the bandwidth limitations of a FSB and allows future processors to receive data as fast as it can be translated.

DDR2 and other RAM memory modules used currently

DDR3 drawbacks


It's often argued that DDR2 memory isn't fast enough for today's processors, as Intel's current fastest Front Side Bus (FSB) uses a 1333 MHz data rate. But this newer FSB doesn't require a "1333 MHz" memory to perform. As I explained in a previous post, Dual-Channel technology has stuck around so that today's FSB-1333 is easily fed by two DDR2-667 (PC2-5300) modules in dual-channel mode.


Another argument for buying DDR3 RAM memory could be for running memory "synchronously" to the CPU's FSB. But DDR3-1333 isn't synchronous to FSB-1333. Intel's FSB uses Quad Data Rate technology while the memory is only Double Data Rate. FSB-1333 runs at a 333 MHz clock rate, which is the same clock rate as DDR2-667.


Conclusion

So, in spite of DDR3 benefits, I think that it's not worth buying DDR3 memory yet. In my opinion, its benefits don't justify its price until new motherboards and processors compatible with DDR3 memory are cheaper and more developed (with a faster BUS for example). In the next post I will try to explain the key parameters I would take into account to decide which motherboard to buy

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PC - RAM Memory

After explaining a bit the microprocessor, here I will try to explain the key parameters I would consider to decide the RAM memory configuration for my Personal Computer:


Manufacturer

I strongly recommend to buy Kingston memory.


Number of modules

It's always advisable to minimize the number of memory modules. If we have four modules, for example, this may force the BIOS to work with relaxed timings and can cause memory compatibility issues and that the memory will work slower. The best choice is two modules to take advantage of dual channel.

Different RAM types. From top to bottom DIP, SIPP, SIMM 30 pin, SIMM 72 pin, DIMM (168-pin), DDR DIMM (184-pin).

Quantity of memory

Although 8 GB memory kits (which consist of four 2 GB DIMMs) are affordable, these only make sense if you have applications that really take advantage of the increased memory capacity. But these kits might give you the same headache as 3 GB kits, because all of them include four memory modules. This may force the BIOS to work with relaxed timings and can cause memory compatibility issues. A memory capacity of 2 GB is enough. If you think that you will need more memory, the best choice is to buy 2 modules of 2 GB each (a kit of 4 GB).

Dual Channel

Although Dual channel is a concept related to motherboards rather than memory, it's worth explaining here its importance. Dual channel can double the memory bandwith provided that the memory modules are completely identical.


Frequency

The more high is the frequency, the more fast the memory can work. But the frequency of the memory doesn't have to be much higher than the frequency of the bus. In this situation, the frequency of the bus is a bottleneck and the extra money we have spent on this memory will be wasted. It's extremely important to match the frequency of the RAM memory with the frequency of the bus.

For example, Intel's current fastest Front Side Bus (FSB) uses a 1333 MHz data rate. But this newer FSB doesn't require a "1333 MHz" memory to perform. Dual-Channel technology has stuck around so that today's FSB-1333 is easily fed by two DDR2-667 (PC2-5300) modules in dual-channel mode. In this example the RAM memory matches the frequency of the bus. Besides a DDR2-667 (PC2-5300)memory is synchronous to FSB-1333 because both runs at a 333 MHz clock rate.

So a DDR3-1333 memory isn't synchronous to FSB-1333 as Intel's FSB uses Quad Data Rate technology while the memory is only Double Data Rate. FSB-1333 runs at a 333 MHz clock rate, which is the same clock rate as DDR2-667.

Bandwith

The bandwith of a memory can be defined as:

Bandwith (Mbytes/seg) =Frequency of the memory (MHz) x 8 bytes

The easy method to convert data

rate to bandwidth is to multiply by eight. Thus, DDR-400 is called PC-3200; DDR2-800 is called PC2-6400 and DDR3-1600 is called PC2-12800.

The math behind this conversion factor is simple: PC memory modules based on SDRAM technology use a 64-bit connection; there are eight bits in a byte and 64 bits equal eight bytes. For example, DDR2-800 transfers 800 megabits per pathway per second; its 64 pathways provide one eight-byte transfer per cycle and 800 times eight is 6400. For example, today's faster memory is DDR3-1333 which has a peak bandwidth of 10666 MHz. This memory is commonly labeled as either PC3-10600 or PC3-10666.

Latency

RAM memory is structured in a table of rows and columns. The latency is the time elapsed, measured in clock cycles, between the request of reading a data and the moment in which this data is available. Values of latency are usually CL2'5, CL3, CL4, CL5.

Speed Vs. Latency

There's a myth that every new memory format brings with it a latency penalty. The myth is perpetuated by the method upon which latency labels are based: Clock cycles.

Consider the latency ratings of the three most recent memory formats: Upper-midrange DDR-333 was rated at CAS 2; similar-market DDR2-667 was rated at CAS 4 and today's middle DDR3-1333 is often rated at CAS 8. Most people would be shocked to learn that these vastly different rated timings result in the same actual response time, which is specifically 12 nanoseconds.

The problem perceived by many less-informed buyers is that faster memory responds more slowly, but it's obvious from these examples that this simply isn't often the case. The real problem isn't that response times are getting slower, but instead that they've failed to get quicker! When we see astronomical "speeds," we hope that our entire systems will become "more responsive" as a result. Yet, memory latencies are one place where things really haven't changed much. For example, with DDR400 and dual channel the theoretical bandwith would be 6400MB/s and with DDR2 800, the theoretical bandwith would reach 12800MB/s. But latencies can't be reduced, so the bandwith improves with DDR2 800 but only up tu 8GB/s more or less.

Conclusion

So I strongly recommend 2 identical Kingston modules of 1 GB each. If you needed more capacity, I would recommend 2 identical Kingston modules of 2 GB each. In the next post I will explain a bit the differences between DDR2 and DDR3 and whether it's worth choosing DDR3.

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PC - Microprocessor

The Microprocessor

Next you can find the main features of a microprocessor to be considered in order to choose the chip which matches better your needs.

Manufacturer

Currently there are two main manufacturers: Intel and AMD (Advanced Micro Devices). Intel processors were better until the appearance of the AMD Athlon in 2003. This AMD chip performs better than its competitor: Intel Pentium IV. But now Intel has recovered the leadership with his Intel Core 2 Duo. So there isn't a manufacturer absolutely better than the other one. For example, the better mainstream processor now is the Intel Core 2 Duo (two cores) or Intel Core 2 Quad (four cores).

AMD processors

But The Athlon 64 family had been superior to Intel's Pentium 4 or Pentium D offerings most of the time from the AMD64 launch in 2003 and Intel's introduction of the Core microarchitecture in 2006. While the Pentium 4 and Pentium D were aimed at reaching high clock speeds, their power requirements grew faster than the performance benefits.

As a consequence, AMD's approach of delivering more performance per clock was clearly more successful. Intel realized that a reasonable balance between processing cores and clock speed, based on the available manufacturing technologies, provides a much better path to more performance at reasonable power requirements. This eventually helped the company to get the crown back with Core 2 Duo.

Intel microprocessors

Technology

The main component of a microprocessor is the transistor. AMD phenom processor has more than 700 million of this semiconductor elements, most of them belonging to cache memory, so reducing the size of transistors the memory cache size can be increased. Nowadays Intel i7 processor technology is 45nm, where 45 nanometers is the length of a part of the transistor.

Architecture

When it's said that a processor has an architecture of 64 bits, then this processor can get 64 bits from the RAM memory simultaneously through the data bus. The more bits can get the processor simultaneously, the more fast can it work. Therefore a 64 bits processor with the suitable software can perform better than a 32 bits processor working at the same clock frequency. Another features concerning the architecture of a processor is whether it has memory cache and how much levels of this kind of memory it has,if it has also a memory controller included inside the processor and the number of cores it has.

Number of Cores

Until three years ago the microprocessors only had one core. The design and architecture of the chip was improved continuously (reducing voltage and transistors size and increasing memory cache size) so that the chip could work each time at a higher frequency and, this way, improve its performance.

But frequencies couldn't increase more without a big increase in power consumption and difficulties concerning power dissipation appeared (energy efficience). So manufacturers decided to decrease frequency of microprocessors and to use parallelism technology to keep improving perfomance of processors at lower frequencies. So manufacturers began to design chips with two o more processors inside, called cores.

AMD X2 3600 processor

Memory Cache. Layers

The microprocessor process the data obtained from the memory much faster than the time needed for the memory and the Bus to supply the next data. So the processor is often idle waiting for more data and its performance get worse.

For this reason a small but incredibly fast memory is put inside the microprocessor. This memory is called Cache and it normally contains the data the processor needs more often. This way the processor doesn't remain idle too much time. Even more than one level of memory cache are put in the processor to improve its performance.

The processors which don't have memory cache are also cheaper because the processor is easier to manufacture. For example, Intel sells Pentium processor with the tag Celeron. The processors called Celeron have much less memory cache, so they perform worse but are cheaper.

The main reason of the performance of the Core 2 Duo processor is its large and shared level 2 memory cache for both cores.

Frequency

The more high is the frequency, the more fast can work the processor. AMD processors always work at a lower frequency than Intel processors but some AMD chips can perform better because they can execute more instructions per clock cycle than Intel chips thanks to a more advanced architecture. Frequency is an important parameter to compare two processors provided they have a similar memory cache size and cores because a higher frequency can't compensate for a small memory cache. For example, a Pentium IV Celeron at 3.0 GHz performs worse than a Pentium IV 2.6 GHz.

Socket

In personal computers (PC), the microprocessor is inserted in a specific socket in a motherboard. The motherboard, through this socket, connects the microprocessor to the memory and to the peripherals. Through the peripherals, the processor can interact with the external world. Also in the motherboard some chips of RAM memory are inserted. The data between the RAM memory and the microprocessor is transferred by a bus, which is an electrical path between computer components.

Sockets Intel:

478 (Pentium IV and celeron)
LGA (Land Grid Array) 775 (from Pentium IV to Core 2 Duo)
Socket B (LGA 1366, incorporates the integrated memory controller and Intel QuickPath Interconnect)

Sockets AMD:

754 (Sempron i Athlon)
939 (Athlon 64 with dual channel)
AM2 (ATHLON 64 X2, supports DDR2 RAM memory)
AM3 (will support DDR3 RAM memory)

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